Abstract
This paper reports on research undertaken in one modern Scottish
university (MSU) to identify university teachers’ conceptions of and approaches
to teaching campus-based students using C&ITs. 18 teachers from the business
school were interviewed and their transcripts were analysed to identify their
underlying conceptions and approaches to teaching generally. From this a theoretical
sample of 7 teachers’ transcripts representing the range of possible conceptions
of teaching were analysed in detail using qualitative software to identify
their conceptions of teaching using C&ITs specifically. In addition two
focus group discussions were undertaken with two different teaching teams
piloting the use of a managed learning environment where teachers were asked
to reflect on this experience. Data was analysed and three findings are offered.
Firstly a model of teachers’ conceptions of teaching campus based students
using C&ITs; secondly a model of teachers’ approaches to teaching
campus based students using C&ITs and thirdly the importance of the ‘experience’
of teaching using C&ITs in influencing the formation and development of
teachers’ conceptions of teaching using C&ITs.
KEY WORDS
Conceptions, approaches, experience teaching, phenomenographic
Literature
Previous research by ), and and most recently By Kember &
Gow (2000) has established close links between students' conceptions of learning,
their approaches to study and to learning outcomes achieved. Also, that the
relationship between teaching and learning has been established , , , .
This research focuses on an area where relatively little work
has been done, the relationship between conceptions of teaching and approaches
to teaching. Particular interest is paid to teachers' conceptions of and approaches
to teaching using C&ITs. Previous research suggests that teachers' approaches
to using C&ITs for teaching will be influenced by their conceptions
of teaching using C&ITs.
The Nature of Conceptions
distinguish between 'concepts' and 'conceptions'
with the latter carrying personal meaning. describes a conception as an aspect
of an individual's behaviour in the world and his/her experience of it. For
the purposes of this research the definition of conceptions adopted is that
given by Pratt 1992:
'Conceptions are specific meanings attached to phenomena,
which then mediate our response to situations involving those phenomena. We
form conceptions of virtually every aspect of our perceived world, and in
so doing, use those abstract representations to delimit something from, and
relate it to, other aspects of our world. In effect, we view the world through
the lenses of our conceptions, interpreting and acting in accordance with
our understanding of the world' : 204)
The nature of approaches
analysed teaching approaches in terms of 'intentions'
and 'strategies' and found that the majority of teachers adopted content-centred
approaches i.e. the intention was to transfer information or concepts to students
by teacher focused strategies. The minority adopted a student-focused approach
with the intention of helping students develop or change their understanding
of key ideas. A later quantitative study confirmed the original intention
- strategy relationship.
Conceptions of teaching
following analysis of previous research findings proposed
that there was broad agreement in the existence of two contrasting orientations
to teaching. In examining these orientations more closely, further proposed
that each orientation may be sub-divided into two conceptions, though the
boundary between these is not clear cut. A fifth conception provides a link
resulting in a model with a continuum of five conceptions of teaching and
two polarised orientations to teaching.
Teaching orientations and conceptions (Kember & Kwan
2000)
Methodology
My stance is interpretative and within this I am taking a
phenomenographic approach. Phenomenography offers an alternative research
approach for understanding teaching by focusing on the ways teachers are aware
of, or experience, or describe their world . It is in analysing descriptions
that I am seeking to identify and attribute conceptions and approaches. My
approach recognises the selective process we as individuals adopt when talking
about and describing phenomena. My interest is in what individuals choose
to talk about, what they regard as being important, what they use as evidence,
where they express their feelings etc. Initially a purposive sampling strategy
was used with teaching beliefs and experiences concerning the use of C&ITs
for teaching and learning guiding selection of teaching staff. Another
aim of the purposive sampling strategy was to include teachers of different
status, age, gender, business disciplinary background, and with different
areas/levels of responsibility and lengths of teaching experience. As a result
18 university teachers were interviewed and transcripts analysed to identify
their conceptions of teaching. From this, a theoretical sample of 7 teachers’
transcripts representing the range of conceptions of teaching was analyzed
in detail. In addition 2 focus groups were held with two teaching teams who
were involved in piloting the use of a managed learning environment (Blackboard)
in Semester A, session 2000/01.
Research problem and research questions
My research problem is the experience of university teachers
in the Business School of MSU concerning the use of Chits for teaching and
learning. My research questions are:
Dealing with transcripts
write a coding process or set of procedures that researchers
use to interpret and organise data, which usually involves ‘conceptualising
and reducing data, elaborating categories in terms of their properties and
dimensions.' (p12)
Using my research questions I developed a template for 'conceptualising
and reducing' my data. In doing this c20 page verbatim transcripts were
reduced to 4-5 page summaries, which enabled comparisons and conceptions and
approaches to teaching to be identified. A theoretical sample of seven interviewees
representing the full range of conceptions of teaching were selected for detailed
analysis.
Findings
Modelling teachers' conceptions of teaching using
C&ITs
The teachers in this study represent a range of conceptions
of teaching and levels of enthusiasm for teaching using C&ITs. Most were
using C&ITs to teach campus based students and used C&ITs in addition
to face-to-face teaching. The survey and interviews have shown high use of
primary courseware i.e. subject based information to support conceptualisation
stages of learning (Mayes 1997). These were mainly the WWW or PowerPoint.
Conceptions of C&ITs for teaching &
learning
Apparent incremental
development of teaching campus-based students using C&ITs
- C&ITs used to present or access
subject resources - one way
- C&ITs used interactively but
individually
and independently to practice, develop
or
test understanding - two way
- C&ITs used interactively as
part of
group class time dialogue, feedback
and
learning - multi-way
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Some use was made of a variety of secondary courseware to
support the construction stage of learning but this was much less frequent
both in the survey and amongst interviewees. The secondary courseware was
used for subject-based exercises such as practices and self assessments to
enhance understanding and increase learning. In addition, there was evidence
of more complex secondary courseware used in conjunction with communication
media to achieve higher levels of understanding through analysis and decision
making with dialogue and feedback being incorporated to test and develop further
learning. All such uses were embedded in teaching and learning strategies
where teaching was also undertaken on a face-to-face classroom basis where
different forms of real time dialogue and learning were undertaken.
With the exception of PowerPoint, most of the primary and
secondary courseware uses reported by interviewees in this study appear to
have been used by staff and students out with timetabled class time e.g. WWW
and self paced learning materials. In some instances communication and dialogue
were explicitly integrated with the use of courseware and use was undertaken
during timetabled classes with the teacher present and contributing. The model
below aims to depict the current usage of C&ITs for teaching arising from
the above analysis of respondents in this study. Most use is of primary courseware
as sources of information.
Experiences of C&ITs and their influences on
conceptions of teaching.
Use of Blackboard was piloted at two different levels, undergraduate
and postgraduate, and with full time and part time students. The dominant
reasons for, and benefits perceived by introducing the use of an MLE tended
to focus on the 'managed' rather than 'learning' aspects of the MLE. The approach
taken by both teaching teams had been to use Blackboard as a complement to
face-to-face teaching, which had not been reduced or changed to any great
extent. The use of Blackboard was thus additional as well as complementary.
This lack of change in timetabled teaching was due to the pilot nature of
use, to concerns that the technical infrastructure in the university could
not support more committed use and possibly because teaching teams were not
sure how to use an MLE effectively for teaching and learning. The experiences
of these teaching teams was one of considerable difficulties - particularly
concerning technical and administrative support - yet despite these, the overall
conclusion in both pilots was for continued use and further development arising
from the perceived benefits. These benefits were personal in terms of the
managerial benefits the MLE offered re access, market competition, student
monitoring etc. In terms of teaching and learning benefits strong positive
feedback and support from students regarding existing and continued use and
for the further development of Blackboard suggested the MLE met the learning
needs of students in some significant ways also. Student feedback in particular
appears to have had greatest impact reinforcing for some teachers' their existing
beliefs about teaching using C&ITs and causing others to reconsider if
not change their beliefs.
The evidence in this study perhaps unsurprisingly indicates
that positive experiences are likely to lead to spreading, continuing and
increasing use of C&ITs for teaching. A personal sense of achievement
at using online teaching and learning is reported which can be reinforced
by positive student feedback. Reflection is a necessary precursor for change
and reflecting on such experiences is likely to influence if, why and how
an MLE will be used. Further, such reflections are likely to be influenced
by existing conceptions of teaching, which in turn are likely to be informed
by the formation of conceptions of teaching using C&ITs arising from that
experience.
| Positive experiences |
Versus
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Negative experiences
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are likely to lead to favourable dispositions towards
teaching using C&ITs
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are likely to lead ts unfavourable
dispositions towards teaching using C&ITs
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Benefits of teaching using C&ITs are motivational.
They out weigh difficulties
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Benefits are not perceived, or are not sufficient,
to be motivational. Difficulties remain as barriers to use
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Positive student feedback (demand) is likely
to reinforce positivity and continued use
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Negative student feedback (demand) is likely
to reinforce negativity and deter (further) use
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Perception that students want to, like to and will use C&ITs, for
learning likely to reinforce continued development and use
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Perception that students prefer F2F, don't like, and won't use C&ITs
for learning, likely to reinforce negativity and deter (further) use
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Easy to use C&ITs are likely to reinforce positivity spreading,
use
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Difficult to use C&ITs are likely to reinforce negativity and deter
continuing and increasing use
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Positive perception and uptake of CPD in teaching using C&ITs is
likely to reinforce use, development and change
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Negative perception of CPD in teaching using C&ITs is likely to
reinforce non or minimum use with little or no change
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A prime objective of this analysis was to explore whether
approaches to teaching influence conceptions of teaching i.e. a two way rather
than unidirectional relationship. argued that institutional factors such as
large classes, team teaching, heavy workloads and in this case perhaps teaching
using C&ITs, are likely to change teachers approaches to teaching but
not their 'deep seated beliefs' or conceptions of teaching. But if approaches
to or experiences of teaching do not influence conceptions of teaching how
can they be formed and how can they develop? In one of the focus groups teaching
teams had adopted a new and different approach to teaching incorporating the
use of an MLE, but had also continued with traditional approaches in terms
of class timetabled approaches. They were self critical and questioning of
this and conveyed an expectation that teaching using an MLE should be different
but weren't sure what this meant. Their overall positive experience suggests
they will make some changes to their approach in future, but this may not
in itself alter their conceptions of teaching i.e. an MLE can be used for
subject transmission as well as learning facilitation.
Discussion
Approaches to teaching using C&ITs
My research has shown greatest use being made of C&ITs
for the conceptualisation stage of teaching and learning with very much less
use of C&ITs for the construction stage of teaching and learning. Least
use is made of C&ITs for the dialogue stage of teaching and learning.
Further, given this study has been concerned with mainly campus based use
of C&ITs, it might be hoped that the construction and dialogue stages
of learning are undertaken in class based teaching. However, resource pressures
on higher education are showing that it is precisely these aspects of teaching
and learning that are being reduced. Far from 'closing the gap' and compensating
for the reduction in small group work as envisaged by [Dearing, 1997 #138]
current evidence suggests C&ITs are being used mainly to support and augment
existing emphasis on lectures and the ''delivery' of subject content.
Modelling teachers' conceptions of
teaching using C&ITs
Three different conceptions of teaching using C&ITs
are presented namely, teaching using C&ITs:
as sources of information - access or presentation
for individual self paced learning & self assessment
- practice, drills, problem solving exercises
for group work involving analysis, decision making and dialogue
In addition, in campus based teaching all of
the above were used in combination with some form of real time dialogue and
learning.
C&ITs used as sources of subject information
My research showed the WWW to be most widely used and here
motivation was for staff to learn - to update their own knowledge of subject
information for teaching. The next most common use of C&ITs was to direct
students to relevant web sites for subject resources. Most teachers were using
primary courseware for the conceptualisation stage of Mayes' learning cycle.
This implies a conception of C&ITs as sources of subject information which
can be used to achieve some form of interaction between the learner's existing
knowledge and new information. The learner may be the teacher preparing to
teach or the student being taught. This conception may view teaching and learning
using C&ITs as an individual and independent or directed activity. Teachers'
motivations for using C&ITs are therefore governed by these subject focused
features and perceived benefits of C&ITs. The strategies of teachers with
this motivation for using C&ITs may be identified from their descriptions
of uses to 'present', 'clarify', 'elaborate', 'illustrate' etc indicative
of a subject focused approach and consistent with the process models proposed
by and .
C&ITs used for individual and independent self-paced
learning
There was less use by teachers in this study of C&ITs
for task based learning contributing to Mayes' construction stage of learning.
Nevertheless some teachers did use C&ITs as tools which could enable subject
analysis or subject drills which could be performed, practised, and assessed
resulting in learning. These may be activities done in students' own time
capitalising on the place, pace and time flexibilities of C&ITs. They
were used individually and independently of other learners or the teacher.
The motivation for use may have arisen from resource constraints reducing
opportunities for face-to-face teaching and/or by a more student-centred,
learning focused orientation to teaching. The strategies for using C&ITs
may be identified from teachers' descriptions of uses to 'engage by practice',
'apply', 'consolidate', 'challenge' etc indicative of the process models referred
to above.
C&ITs used for group analysis, decision making and
dialogue
Some teachers' motivations for teaching using C&ITs stemmed
from a recognition that C&ITs are a part of life and work in general and
as such should be used in a teaching and learning context. A simple conception
of this view may be that they are modern day tools and as such should be used
because of the benefits e.g. of convenience, flexible access etc they bring.
Others may have a more complex conception of C&ITs as learning environments,
which enable learning relationships to be established and developed. As electronic
media these environments can capture the otherwise transitory interactions
of teacher and students. In addition, C&ITs can be used to extend the
parameters of the learning environment (not just to distributed learners)
but by drawing in external professionals and allowing access to the larger
communities of practice. The dialogue stage of Mayes' learning cycle may be
evident in the strategies of teachers adopting this conception of C&ITs.
Social and interpersonal dimensions of learning and the creation and maintenance
of learning relationships are given prominence in the use of C&ITs for
group work. Descriptions of approaches to using C&ITs from teachers with
this conception relate to real world situations and real world access to achieve
relevance, stimulate students’ motivation and enhance learning. In this approach
to teaching using C&ITs the teacher is neither 'sage on the stage' nor
'guide on the side' but a legitimate 'full' participant in this community
of learning.
The teachers in this study were teaching using C&ITs with
campus based students i.e. even the part time MBA students though off campus
for the majority of the week did return to the physical campus for teaching
in timetabled classes. Two additional conceptions of teaching using C&ITs
have been generated from the literature these are teaching using C&ITs:
for real time dialogue & learning
for asynchronistic dialogue and reflective learning
This gives a model of five distinctive conceptions of conceptions
of teaching using C&ITs.
Mapping C&ITs onto Kember's (1997)
model of conceptions of teaching
By drawing together the two models above into one it is possible
to see the relationship I am proposing between conceptions of teaching , approaches
to teaching and my developed model of conceptions of teaching using C&ITs.
Missing are the dimensions of teaching using C&ITs I identified from my
analysis of teachers' approaches to teaching using C&ITs. I suggested
the motivational dimension, the reason for teachers to teach campus based
students using C&ITs, was driven by whether teachers wanted to:
Modelling experience of teaching using
C&ITs
I have avoided use of teaching using C&ITs as being complementary
since this description can cover almost all types of motivations for teaching
using C&ITs particularly when this is undertaken with campus based teaching
as well. I have argued that conceptions of teaching using C&ITs are formed
and developed through experience of teaching using C&ITs and that that
experience is influenced by contextual factors as well as existing conceptions
of teaching. As a result a relationship between conceptions of teaching, approaches
to teaching using C&ITs and conceptions of teaching using C&ITs is
to be expected. Similarly, contextual factors in influencing approaches and
generating reflection on approaches and experiences may also have some influence
on the formation and development of conceptions. I have suggested earlier
that teachers' motivations for using C&ITs is linked to perceived benefits
in terms of resource saving (substitutional) or teaching enhancement (additionality).
In addition I have suggested that positive experiences of teaching using C&ITs
are likely to sustain continued use of C&ITs for teaching. Further I have
suggested that positive experiences can result from students' feedback on
teaching using C&ITs. (There was recognition also that demand from students
for greater use of C&ITs in teaching and learning will create pressures
for increased teaching using C&ITs.) I have also argued that team teaching
may through collective reflection on practice, influence approaches to teaching
using C&ITs. However, does all of this also influence teachers' conceptions
of teaching using C&ITs? It may be reasonable to speculate that in time
positive experiences leading to increased and more diversified teaching using
C&ITs can contribute to the development of more sophisticated conceptions
of teaching using C&ITs.
Recommendations for future research
My research has been small scale and no attempt is made to
generalise. Rather some issues have been raised and some models are proposed
which aim to reflect the current state of university teachers' experiences
of using C&ITs for teaching and learning. I hope this may contribute to
increased understanding and stimulate and influence the direction of future,
possibly larger scale studies.
Dearing (1997) in recommending the increased use of C&ITs
in higher education sought an alternative to the trend in higher education
for increased reliance on lectures and reduced emphasis on small group teaching.
It would seem C&ITs are still not bridging this gap and research into
how C&ITs may be used to help close this gap will be valuable. In this
regard further exploration of teachers’ beliefs concerning the role of lectures
in higher education is likely to be a useful starting point.
Teachers are motivated to use C&ITs if they believe there
are benefits arising from their use. In this study, benefits of or motivations
for teachers' approaches to using C&ITs with campus based students were
categorised as 'substitutional' or 'additional.' Further, larger scale research
into teachers' motivations for using C&ITs would be useful to confirm
or develop understanding of why teachers do and therefore should or could
use C&ITs for teaching.
Teachers' conceptions of teaching can be reflected in their
conceptions of teaching using C&ITs but that there are barriers (perceived
or actual) which appear to prevent some teachers implementing the same sophistication
of teaching conception using C&ITs as they do when not using C&ITs.
It would appear that C&ITs contribute to but do not achieve in their own
right as sophisticated conceptions of teaching. Further exploration of this
would also be useful. Having said that for some teachers with basic conceptions
of teaching, teaching using C&ITs may contribute to developing and changing
their conceptions to a more advanced level. Exploration of this might also
be fruitful.
References
Dearing, Report. 1997. Appendix 2: New approaches to teaching:
comparing cost structures of teaching methods. London: National Committee
of Inquiry into Higher Education.